The synthesis of ethical standards attempted below is extracted from a longer study recently released. It contains ethical standards gleaned from the writings of a selection of leading sociological thinkers as well as three leading sociological associations.
Click here to read the longer study
Subtle and not so subtle variations will be noticed, particularly when the list provided here is read against the backdrop of the longer study. Some of these variations will pass as differences in emphasis from one 'jurisdiction' or tradition to another, some as contradictions that need explanation, and yet others as deep-rooted, anomie-inducing dilemmas for the researcher wishing to be more compliant. I will not make judgment, besides what I have already said in the longer study. My task here is simply to document the various standards -- and to 'systematize' them in some way. The keen observer will probably detect grave omissions. So be it:
II. Standards Gleaned From the Works of Individual Thinkers
1. Ethics is a necessary underpin for the only 'class' of conduct we can collectively accept as good.
2. Ethics is about conduct, professional ethics about professional conduct, good professional conduct about conformity to the highest value propositions of a given field of practice. In research, this means, more specifically, proper/professional conduct guided by the highest normative principles or best traditions, and/or collective 'hopes', of a discipline.
3. 'Rule of the senses' -- as the anchor for "rational methods of procedure" -- is a necessary standard for evaluating and judging research claims presented as evidence-based.
3. 'Rule of the senses' -- as the anchor for "rational methods of procedure" -- is a necessary standard for evaluating and judging research claims presented as evidence-based.
4. 'Doing it for the good of the profession', or the community, is a high ideal worth espousing.
5. "Social facts are things and must be treated as such", that is, studied empirically.
6. Systematic and objective observation of social facts is the basis for Truth-finding.
7. Antecedent social facts must be the basis for determining the cause of any social fact of interest, and for explaining it.
8. The comparative method -- that is, "indirect experimentation" sensitive to concomitant variation -- is the only way to determine cause and effect in sociology (Durkheim).
9. The "subject matter of Ethics" is conduct or practice "considered objectively as producing good or bad results" (Spencer,1892: 8)
10. In a scholastic discipline, the only authority to which a practitioner must defer is, by inference, "the represented opinion of other individuals" in the discipline. That is how I interpret Spencer.
10. In a scholastic discipline, the only authority to which a practitioner must defer is, by inference, "the represented opinion of other individuals" in the discipline. That is how I interpret Spencer.
III. From the Main Ethical Prescriptions of Three Leading Sociological Associations: ASA, BSA and ISA (Themes arranged alphabetically)
COVERT RESEARCH
Covert or undercover research is unethical. Such research should be avoided unless it is the only available option.
FALSE CLAIMS
All should avoid making claims, in the media or elsewhere, to scientific discovery not supported by adequate evidence.
FINDINGS AND PUBLICATIONS
Researchers have intellectual property rights and copyright over the data and results of their research, though some sponsors may insist on a share of those rights. Researchers also have the right to publish their data, findings -- and related interpretations.
Researchers may invoke the law or initiate other interventions against sponsors' effort to distort their findings or present them out of context, or otherwise misuse their data (See also ASA, Standard 15: Authorship Credit).
INFORMED CONSENT
Respondents' consent must be sought and obtained in advance. The principle of due regard to respondents requires doing interviews under conditions of free and informed consent by respondents, based on clear knowledge of: ..., study objectives, rationale, and funding sources; how research results will be disseminated and implemented; their rights under copyright and data protection law -- including the right to object to, or withdraw consent regarding, any aspect of the research in question.
"Informed consent is a basic ethical tenet of scientific research on human populations. Sociologists do not involve a human being as a subject in research without the informed consent of the subject or the subject’s legally authorized representative, except as otherwise specified in this Code. Sociologists recognize the possibility of undue influence or subtle pressures on subjects that may derive from researchers’ expertise or authority, and they take this into account in designing informed consent procedures" (ASA, Informed Consent, Standard 12)
PARTICIPANTS
All main contributors to a research project must be acknowledged in any publication of its content
PLAGIARISM
"a) In publications, presentations, teaching, practice, and service, sociologists explicitly identify, credit, and reference the author when they take data or material verbatim from another person’s written work, whether it is published, unpublished, or electronically available. (b) In their publications, presentations, teaching, practice, and service, sociologists provide acknowledgment of and reference to the use of others’ work, even if the work is not quoted verbatim or paraphrased, and they do not present others’ work as their own whether it is published, unpublished, or electronically available" (ASA, Standard 14)PROFESSIONAL AND SCIENTIFIC STANDARDS
"Sociologists adhere to the highest possible technical standards that are reasonable and responsible in their research, teaching, practice, and service activities. They rely on scientifically and professionally derived knowledge; act with honesty and integrity; and avoid untrue, deceptive, or undocumented statements in undertaking work-related functions or activities" (ASA, Standard 1)PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE, COMPETENCY AND EXPERTISE
Researchers should consistently keep their work within the boundaries of their "professional competence." Researchers should avoid making false, or fuzzy, claims to expertise which they do not in fact have. This requirement is particularly important when participants in public policy discussions are sought or recruited or announced.Sociologists should avoid "claiming expertise" where they lack "the necessary depth of research knowledge", in particular "when contributing to public discussion or policy debate". [That is to say, they should have the humility to recognize and acknowledge the limits of their expertise, and to act accordingly]
RESEARCH METHODS, DATA COLLECTION TOOLS AND DATA SOURCES
Researchers must specify their data gathering methods as well as data sources.
A number of obligations do confront the researcher here, as we see below:
"Sociologists have an obligation to promote the integrity of research and to ensure that they comply with the ethical tenets of science in the planning, implementation, and dissemination of research. They do so in order to advance knowledge, to minimize the possibility that results will be misleading, and to protect the rights of research participants " (ASA, Standard 13)Or, concerning reporting of research:
"Reporting on Research (a) Sociologists disseminate their research findings except where unanticipated circumstances (e.g., the health of the researcher) or proprietary agreements with employers, contractors, or clients preclude such dissemination. (b) Sociologists do not fabricate data or falsify results in their publications or presentations. (c) ...sociologists report their findings fully and do not omit relevant data.... (d) Sociologists...also disclose underlying assumptions, theories, methods, measures, and research designs that might bear upon findings and interpretations of their work. (e) ...once findings are publicly disseminated, sociologists permit their open assessment and verification... (f) If sociologists discover significant errors in their publication or presentation of data, they take reasonable steps to correct such errors..." (ASA, Standard 13.04)
RESEARCHER-RESEARCHER/PARTICIPANT RELATIONS
Researchers have responsibility for the general welfare of their research assistants and other research participants, and must not violate their contractual obligations (implied or not) to them. Such relations should be based on trust and integrity, as well as respect for all human rights.
The broad principle of professional integrity requires giving respect to the interests of all research participants and non-participants affected by a researcher's work.
RESPONDENTS' CONFIDENTIALITY, PRIVACY, SECURITY AND ANONYMITY
Informants' personal information and security must be "rigorously" respected. This includes their personal documents that they may make available. Records and data must be securely stored against ongoing and emergent threats. All guarantees of confidentiality to individuals must be honored. However, abuses (such as child abuse) and other illegal acts encountered during research should not be ignored; they should be reported to relevant authorities (see also
"Sociologists have an obligation to ensure that confidential information is protected. They do so to ensure the integrity of research and the open communication with research participants and to protect sensitive information obtained in research, teaching, practice, and service..." (see ASA Confidentiality Standard 11)
SPONSORS, FUNDING SOURCES, GRANTS AND CONTRACTS
All details of funded research must be fully specified in a written contract or agreement, which should be arrived at by mutual understanding. Sociologists should stay away from grants or contracts involving "bidding wars" which are likely to encumber their rights to independent research, or which give sponsors the leeway to delay or veto the publication of findings which they disagree with or which deviate from their political agenda.
Sponsors or Funding Agencies must desist from all attempts to influence findings or conclusions, or violate ethical rights; and researchers must resist all such attempts. Each funded research must be fully covered by a written (and duly signed) contract. It is unethical to design or sign a contract which prescribes the use particular methods, or require results desired by sponsors or funding agencies.
Sponsors and Funding Sources are entitled to "clear information in advance" concerning research procedures and methods to be used in -- as well as likely conclusions from -- research projects that they fund. Sponsors have other rights too. Contracted work must be undertaken as agreed in the Terms of Reference (TOR), and must be completed according to the agreed schedule.
IV. A Final Word
The synthesis attempted above may be rather detailed, but it is not the first attempt made to come to grips, both epistemologically and theoretically, with the ethics of doing sociological research today. Reference is made here, specifically, to the earlier work done in this field by Sotirios Sarantakos (1993). I think the present work validates his own, and in its own 'journey' highlights the significant but hitherto 'unrecognized' effort that he made to distill and bring to the surface the ethics of sociological research in the main way that many students of methodology have come to acquaint themselves with it.
Here, then, is a recapitulation of Sarantakos' distillation of the core ethical dimensions of sociological research, which highlights, I think, a certain kindredness of spirit with the present, longer cogitation:
1. Researcher-Respondent relationship – i.e. the rights of people/animals subjected to research (proper researcher identification, welfare of respondent, free and informed consent by respondent, respondent’s right to privacy/anonymity/ confidentiality) (Sarantakos, 1993: 24).
2. Researcher-Researcher relationship (no misleading “ascription of authorship”: i.e. “Researchers should not list authors in their report without their permission, should not attribute work to persons who have not contributed and should attribute adequately work completed by students, trainees or associates”; no misuse of authority given by a colleague; criticism should be guided by “honesty, sincerity, justice and responsibility” – not “polemic, personal bias or collective interests”; and no plagiarism ) (Sarantakos, 1993: 25).
3. Professional ethics (accuracy in data gathering/processing, use of relevant research methods, accurate [faithful] reporting, and no to data fabrication/falsification).
